Assalamua’laikum……..

EVALUATION IN ENGLISH 4 CD

As ICT Assignment Post Graduate Program of UHAMKA

English Education Department

Lecturer: Hartoyo. M.A.,Ph.D

1. ENGLISH WORD’S

a. The Strengths:

1. The targets for age are achieved.
2. The tests are presented as games with ray-traced graphics, multiple tracks and digital sound effects.
3. It provides music, speech and animation.
4. The certificate of performance can be printed.
5. The main screen help is also provided.
6. It prints detailed Reports of Results.
7. It supports National Curriculum.
8. It is easy to operate and encourage the students.
9. It is built-in help at every stage.
10. It has Extensive Educational Content.
11. Teachers may choose the level they wish to test or teach.
12. The games are initially easy and become increasingly challenging.
13. It can print certificate of performance.

b. The weaknesses:

1. Students need their own computer to use/operate it.
2. Students should be explained how to use/operate it.
3. Students can guess the right answer as it can be used many times.

2. VOCABULARY

a. The Strengths:

1. It is easy to be operated by teachers and students.
2. It has a nice and colorful pictured that makes the students and teachers interest to play.
3. The sound is also good and makes the kids like it.
4. Students can repeat the pronunciation.
5. It also provides a certificate of competence.
6. Teachers and students can get new vocabulary as it has some levels.

b.The weaknesses:

1. The Indonesian students will find it difficult to understand, because it has some difficult vocabularies.
2. The pictures are provided only in four choices.
3. Teachers need more levels to teach.

3. LEARN ENGLISH “Beginner”

a. The Strengths:

1. The result of the test can be printed out.

2. It provides language help.

3. It also has some different topics.

3. Teachers can print the total score for the students.

4. The recording voices is also provided.

5. Teachers and students can go online.

6. It has phrases-practice, dialog-practice, phrases-recording, dialog-recording and quiz.

7. Teachers and students can learn the pronunciation.

b. The weaknesses:

1.    It only has short dialog.

2.    The speaking is too fast for children.

4. SPEAK ENGLISH IN INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

a. The Strengths:

1. Either students or teachers can print out the result.
2. Students can record their voices
3. It also provides volume set.
4. Students can enrich their vocabulary.
5. The result of the students can be compared.

b. The weaknesses:

1. This CD requires a display of resolution at least 1024×768. It will work best with the display set to true color (24or32 bit), 256-colour modes should not be used.
2. It is difficult to install because some recent window systems don’t match to the format of CD.
3. It is rather difficult to use/operate it.
4. We need a recorder.

III. THE CONCLUSION

The entire English teacher should try and do their effort to find an effective and fun teaching method in their classes. Besides using a manual book and blank paper to teach, the teachers can also use the computer as a medium of language teaching (CALL) that can motivates students learning English toward an effective class. The good atmosphere can be created in the class by using these four CD-programs above.

Advantages and Disadvantages Of Information and Communication Technologies in ELT

Using the new technologies in information and communication is increasing in English Language Teaching (ELT), but it has changed in many aspects. But not all those aspects can be viewed as positive. The impact of the use of Information and Communication (ICT) in English Language Teaching (ELT) has brought not only advantages to it, but also, some disadvantages concerning to the availability of technologies to be used, some money to invest on and training for teachers.

The first advantage of using ICT is that teachers and students of English can have the access to get up to date sources and information rapidly and cheaply. This information can be found by using internet or any specialized software, such as the focused exercises that we can find on the net completely for free or we can bring any software via internet or in any store. However there is a concern about this advantage. Firstly, the access of those technologies is not cheap as we may think, so there are many devices needed to be accessed for the information and sources to learn English. For the example, we need a computer to be implemented, and it will be difficult because we have to get some tools. That means, if we need a certain number of computers in the classroom, it will cost a lot of money. Secondly, when the teacher tries to use ICT in learning English, it means a lot of time will be spent to look for useful material on the net to be focused on what it to be taught. And it becomes a hard task to find an already existing material on the topic the teacher of English in working on with his/her students than using a lesson plan.

The second advantage of using ICT is to help the students to develop their skills they need for their lives. There are many sources for teacher to teach in the classroom, she/he can select the ones that fit better to the student’s need based on their age, level, and abilities. There are many resources for ELT we may find on the internet such us discussion groups, games, talking books, interactive book reading, and chatting lines among others. However, this kind of instruction technologies can be use in a wide way, but it should be taken into account that not everything that is on the internet.

In regard of employment, some authors state that the use of ICT in English language teaching provides society with more jobs in areas such as computer programming, system analyzing, hardware and software developing and web designing given that all lessons planes are based on the use of technological devices. The classroom now needs any kind of technical support in case of breakdown, incapability to use specific software or anything that comes with the use of new technology. That means that the teacher would have to play the role of technician and be a master of technology being used given that he/she supposed to assist good teaching with it. That also means, however, that teachers with no training on this technology have no access to ELT using Information and communication technologies, given that he/she does not know how to manage classes.  Many training institutions are not completely aware of the need of the implementation of ICT in English language teaching and, definitely need to enhance subject teaching using ICT. Another disadvantage concerning to employment is that not every teacher is capable to update his/her knowledge on ICT when teaching English. That situation is in some way problematic, given than it is not possible for some teachers to update their knowledge of technologies that they are not capable to use. Moreover, the updating of knowledge becomes nearly impossible in cases in which there is no sponsor or money to pay for training courses on ICT.

As a conclusion, it can be said that, as well as the use of Information and Communication Technologies has advantages on the modern English language teaching, it also has disadvantages that not allow every learner and teacher to make use of it during classes. In that way, every time that Information and Communication Technologies provide advantages such as quick and cheap access to the latest information, the developing of language skills and the emergence of new job opportunities, there are also disadvantages such as the lack of devices to carry out a class, the unreliability of some web sources and the inability of some teachers to train themselves in this technology.

TEACHING LISTENING WITH COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL)

INTRODUCTION

Background

In the last few years, the number of teachers using Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL) has increased markedly and numerous articles have been written about the role of technology in education in the 21st century. Although the potential of the Internet for educational use has not been fully explored yet and the average school still makes limited use of computers, it is obvious that we have entered a new information age in which the links between technology and EFL have already been established.

In the early 90’s education started being affected by the introduction of word processors in schools, colleges and universities. This mainly had to do with written assignments. The development of the Internet brought about a revolution in the teachers’ perspective, as the teaching tools offered through the Internet were gradually becoming more reliable. Nowadays, the Internet is gaining immense popularity in foreign language teaching and more and more educators and learners are embracing it.

Motteram (1971:17) stated that there has always been a perceived relationship between educational technology and learner autonomy. This is taking educational technology in its broadest sense and taking learner autonomy as a super ordinate term. This has become increasingly true for computers and self-access.

Successful learning is depending on the student’s desire to participate. However, there is always lack of participation that is often caused by the artificial nature of the classroom. When they were asked to communicate about various situations, the students should also be involved in the actual situation. Decision-making, asking for advice, agreeing and disagreeing, and compromising with fellow students are all tasks that try out for “authentic” settings. It is in these settings that CALL can be used to great advantage.

By using the computer as a tool to create students projects, research information and provide context, teacher can employ the computer to help students to become more involved in the task, thereby facilitating the necessity of effective learning within a group setting. Due to the importance of CALL in English Foreign Language Class, the writer would like to discuss “Facilitating the Teaching of four Language skills with Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)”.

Identification of the  Problem

Based on the background above, the writer identifies the problems as follow     :

a.     What is Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)?

b.     Why do we use Computer Assisted Language Learning?

c.      How can Computer assisted Language Learning be implemented in learning language skills?

Limitation of the Problem

In regard to the identification of the problems, the writer limits the problem in the use of Computer Assisted Language Learning in English Foreign Language Class.

FRAME OF THEORIES

Computer

Hackbarth (1996:189) stated that computer is a machine which can receive, manipulate and store information. It is operated by sets of instructions. The core of computer is central processing unit which interprets instruction, operates on data and coordinate activities of the entire system. The use of computer in education involves color, music, animated graphic raises students motivation, moreover it provide high speed personalized responses to learners action yield a high rate of reinforcement.

Language Learning

According to Krashen (1998 ) language learning is ‘knowing about’ language, or ‘formal knowledge’ of language. It refers to explicit knowledge of rules, being aware of them and being able to talk about them.

It shows the consciousness of the participant in their efforts to gain the language being learned. It usually involves many elements, such as the teacher, classroom and environment. However, in this case, the language that will be further discussed is English Language.

Computer Assisted Language Learning

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element.

Until quite recently, computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is a topic of relevance mostly to those with a special interest in that area. Recently, though, computers have become so widespread in schools and homes and their uses have expanded so dramatically that the majority of language teachers must now begin to think about the implications of computers for language learning.

This paper provides brief overview of how computers have been used and are being used for language teaching. It focuses not on a technical description of hardware and software, but rather on the use of computers in the classroom especially in teaching language skills.

Computer Assisted Language Learning

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element.

We can divide the development of CALL into three distinct phases (Warschauer, 1996): behaviourist, communicative and integrative.

Behaviourist CALL was implemented in the 1960’s and 70’s, when the Audio-lingual method was mostly used, and provided students with drills and practice. This model used the computer as a tutor, presenting drills and non-judgmental feedback.

Based on the communicative approach, communicative CALL focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves. The communicative CALL programmes provide skill practice in a non-drill format, through language games, reading and text reconstruction. This approach still uses the computer as a tutor, although it gives students choices, control and interaction. Another CALL model used for communicative activities involves the computer as stimulus, as in programs that stimulate writing or discussions, and which may not be specifically designed for language learners. Finally, communicative CALL also

uses the computer as a tool, in programs that do not provide language material, but enable the learner to understand and use the language, such as word processors, desk–top publishing, spelling and grammar checks programs, as used for instance in process writing.

The current approach is integrative CALL, which is based on multimedia computers and the Internet. These technological developments have brought text, graphics, sound, animation and video to be accessed on a single inexpensive computer. These resources are all linked and called ‘hypermedia’, enabling learners to navigate through CD-ROMS and the Internet at their own pace and path, using a variety of media.

Advantages and Disadvantages

CALL offers many advantages for individual instruction; it has infinite patience and often an attractive ‘personality’. It means that the students learn actively, responds the questions, complete interactive tasks, and enter a personal dialogue with their electronic tutor.

The advantage is that CALL, like other new technologies, brings about changes in the teaching methodologies of English. There are cases, though, in which computers are just used to give old materials a new aspect. This is the case of teachers who put students in front of the computer just to make fill-in-the-gap exercises. In the following table we may see the advantages and disadvantages of CALL as stated by  Scrimshaw (1993 ) :

	Advantages	Disadvantages
Lack of face – to – face cues	a.  Anonymity b.  Reduction in status c.  Task – focused (less interpersonal distraction) d. Reduced pressure on individuals to contribute e.  Increased importance of logical argument f.   Contributions not restricted by turn – taking g.  Less domination by an individual	a. Reduced feedback b. Impersonal cues and Jokes and feelings difficult to convey c.  More attenuated interaction d.  Reduced pressure on individuals to contribute e.   Need for skilled moderator to control, orchestrate (or censor?) f.    Increased emotion or aggression in messages (`flaming`)
Time – tag between responses (a synchronicity)	a.  Opportunity to reflect before responding b.  Opportunity to reformulate and correct messages before sanding c.  Convenience d.  Access to discussion with others	a.  Loss of impetus to reply b.  Slowness in decision – making c.  Reduction of  language exchanges for social purposes only d.  Difficulty of reaching consensus

3.4      CALL in Learning Language Skill

Skills-oriented language teaching remains a common approach for classes as well as for self-learning, and computer-assisted language learning is no exception. In this discussion we look at how both tool and tutor software can be used to support specific skills. In particular, we will discuss some websites that focus on these skill areas. Like everything else that’s free on the web, the sites need to be looked at carefully for their pedagogical value. Once you understand what they do, try to judge their fit to your potential students and your own teaching approach. You can also use them to get ideas for your own future CALL materials development.

Teaching Listening Through CALL

Listening is potentially one of the most promising areas for CALL development. This is because multimedia computing has everything standard audio and video have with the addition of a variety of meaning technologies such as text support, hyperlinked glossaries, and even translations.  Listening activities typically involve presentations followed by comprehension questions–some also include full or partial dictations.  One type of presentation specific to CALL is the punctuated presentation, in which the flow is interrupted at intervals to ask questions along the way. This in theory encourages more focused attention and allows a learner to get a check on understanding early in the activity. This technique was popularized in products by DynEd beginning around 1990. Surprisingly few multimedia programs have followed their example.

Examples of course website for two of recent listening classes are at www.stanford.edu/~efs/693a/ and www.stanford.edu/~efs/efs693b/ The notes have both links and examples of listening assignments.  An overview of listening on the web from a 2003 TESOL colloquium is available at www.stanford.edu/~efs/tesol03listening. Note that the list there includes a number of sites where you can find authentic audio or video materials supported by text. A good one for English for academic purposes is www.uncommonknowledge.org, featuring interviews and panel discussions with public policy experts.

There are a number of useful dedicated ESL listening sites: three of my favorites are www.esl-lab.com, www.elllo.org, and www.lingual.net.

CONCLUSION

Based on the discussion mentioned before, the writer may conclude the following point:

1. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element
2. We use CALL in language learning because it contributes significantly to increase student’s motivation, enhance student’s achievement, authentic material for study, individualization and global understanding.
3. Skills-oriented language teaching remains a common approach for classes as well as for self-learning, and computer-assisted language learning is no exception. In this discussion, we have looked at how both tool and tutor software can be used to support specific skills.

§         Listening is potentially one of the most promising areas for CALL development. This is because multimedia computing has everything standard audio and video have with the addition of a variety of meaning technologies such as text support, hyperlinked glossaries, and even translations.  Listening activities typically involve presentations followed by comprehension questions–some also include full or partial dictations.

§         In terms of direct practice of speaking, recent developments on the web have allowed for voice chat sites which make it possible for learners and teachers to interact through the Internet in distance education courses.

REFERENCES

Hackbarth, Steven. 1996. Educational Technology Handbook a Comprehensive Guide Process and Products for Learning. New Jersey: Educational technology Publications.

Heinich. 1982. Instructional Media and the New Technologies of Instruction.  Canada: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Lee, Kuang-wu. 2000. English Teachers’ Barriers to the Use of Computer-assisted Language Learning. In the Internet TESL journal 2000. http://iteslj.org/Articles/Lee-CALLbarriers.html. Date/Time : May 24, 2007/ 17:10:00.

Motteram, G. 1997. Learner Autonomy and the Web. In V Darleguy et al. (eds) Educational Technology in Language Learning : Theoretical Consideration and Practical applications. Lyons : INSA

Scrimshaw, P. 1993. Language, classrooms, and computers. New York: British Library

Warschauer, M. (1996). Computer-assisted language learning: an introduction. In S. Fotos (Ed.), Tokyo: Logos International

SANTRI MERUPAKAN PELITA MASA DEPAN

Dengan kata bismillah seorang santri berjuang melawan hawa nafsunya untuk menjalankan perintah agama dan sunnah sunnah pondok yang diembanya sebagai santri,banyak orang menyangka kalau santri itu identik dengan hal-hal yang kolot bermukim dfan ilmu agama,tapi pada kenyataanya dal;am keseharian mereka tidak seperti apa yang orang pikirkan,santri pada zaman sekarang bukanlah suatu hal yang bisa dipandang sebelah mata.

Banyak dari jajaran kabinet dan orang penting  negara ini yang berasala dari pesantren,dunia pesantren zaman sekarang telah banyak mengadakan evaluasi dan perubahan yang sangat positive bak dibidang agama maupun dibidang yang lain-lainya yang tentunya tidak meniggalkan atau melampaui batas,pada zaman sekarang pondok pesantren telah meju sangat pesat bahkan banyak jebolan pesantren yang bisa bersaing bahkan melebihi  dengan siswa di sekolahan negri,salah satu keuntungan belajar dipondok pesantren ialah  bisa menjadi mandiri,karna mereka terbiasa dengan kehidupan yang tidak bergantungan dengan orang lain karna di pesantren mereka selalu di didik untuk selalu bersandar pada diri sendiri,selain itu santri lebih matang dalam berpikir untuk menghadapi masa depan mereka karna dipesantren mereka selalu di ajar dan dibimbing untun selalu berkelakuan baik dan benar,dan selalu dimonitori oleh pada guru guru selama 24 jam.

Santri juga merupakan salah satu tombak  agama dimasa yang serba otoriter ini,mereka adalah suatu benteng yang dibina secara khusus oleh pengasuh pesantren untuk selalu dalam jalur agama dalam menghgadapi masa-masa diman mereka harus melawan pergaulan mereka demi tegaknya agama Allah SWT,dan merupakan pencerahan bagi masyarakat yang haus akan ilmu agama yang mana pada saat itu agama dipandang sebelah maka bagi sebagian orang yang terlena oleh  bujukan  syetan.

Santri dan siswa negri tidaklah jauh berbeda,hanya saja banyak orang yang erpikir bahwa santri itu orang yang terkebelakang,tapi pada kenyataanya banyak santri yanf tidak hanya sukses dalam bidang agama tapi juga di berbagai keahlian lain yang mereka miliki,karna pada umunya pondok pesantren zaman sekarang telah mencanang sebuah motto yaitu berdakwah bukan hanya dengan berdiri di atas mimbar atau di masjid saja tapi dakwah harus dllakukan di semua aspek.

Writting Essay

A nation’s purpose in educating its children is to prepare them to become productive members of society. Each country in the world has developed a system of education based on its needs, economic resources, and traditions. One would think that industrial societies such as the United States and the countries of Europe would similar systems for educating the children. However, a comparison of school system in Europe and the Unites States reveals several similarities but a great number of differences.

The educational systems of Europe and the United States are similar in number of ways. To begin with, elementary school classes look the same everywhere: There are about twenty-two pupils per class, and the classes are coeducational. In addition, the subjects taught at the elementary level are basically the same everywhere: reading and writing, mathematics, introductions to the sciences, music, sport, and art. Also, there is one teacher for all subject for each grade, and the majority of elementary school teachers are women. The only major difference in the elementary school, but most Americans do not.

Second, European and American students spend approximately the same number of years in school. Both of the United States and most European countries require children to attend school for at least nine or ten years. Germany and Belgium have the highest requirement: twelve years of education. Also, children in most countries start compulsory schooling at a similar age, usually age six, and they may leave school at similar age, usually age sixteen.

Despite these similarities, the educational systems differ greatly in several areas. Some countries require a half-day of school, whereas other require a full day. For example, the number of hours per day and days per year that children must attend school varies widely. The number of hours of students must spend per day in high school ranges from a low of five in Belgium to a high of eight in parts of Hungary and Turkey. In addition, the number of days per year that students must be in school differs. That is a difference of more than two months.

Another major difference is in the types of school available. In the countries of Northern Europe, there is no division between elementary and secondary; school just lows from the first day of first grade until the end of compulsory schooling at age sixteen. In Germany, pupils must make this decision as early as age ten. In the United States, in contrast, they never have to make it.  However, in the United States, school is divided into nine years of elementary and four years of secondary education. Anyone in the United State who graduates from high school has the opportunity to go on to a college or university. Furthermore, some countries require students to make a choice between academic preparatory and vocational training schools.

In addition to the differences in academic and vocational schools, there are also   difference in private schools.  In France, Spain, Belgium, and Austria, most private schools are religious, but in most other countries, they are not. Also, in most of Europe, the government pays part of the cost of private schools: 70 percent in Hungary, 80 percent in Denmark and Austria, and 85 percent in Norway. In contrast, parents must pay the full cost in Britain, Greece, Turkey, and the United States if they want their children to attend a private school.

A final major difference between Europe and the United States is the number of students who go on to higher education. In the United States, over 50 percent of high school graduates enter a college or university. The European average is about 30 to 40 percent. In contrast, fewer than 15 percent of British students do so.

It is clear that the experience of schoolchildren varies from country to country. No one can say if one system is better than another system, for each one fits own needs, economics, and traditions the best. Even though the United State and the countries of European seem very similar in many ways, their educational systems are actually quite different.

Improve Your Reading Speed

Dera blogger….

I should like to share with you some tips to improve your reading skill.

Hopefully this can help you in reading skill

“I read very slowly.”
“I tend to read the same line over and over again.”
“I have loads of readings to do and I don’t think I would ever finish them.”

Do these comments sound familiar to you? If yes, don’t feel bad because you are reading in a foreign language. When people read in a foreign language, very often, they don’t have enough confidence in their text interpretation; and therefore, they usually read more slowly than they do in their own language. After these words of comfort and reassurance, of course, you still want to improve your reading speed. Before you read on, consider the following:

How fast (or how slowly) do I read?

It is important to measure your reading speed before and after your practice in speed reading so that you know how much you have achieved. To do so,

• Choose two reading passages of about the same length and the same difficulty level. (For convenience sake, choose two passages from “Practical Faster Reading” in the SAC.)
• Use one passage before practice and the other after.
• Get a stop watch ready.
• Read the passage.
• Record the time you took to finish the passage.

If you read a passage with comprehension questions (like those in “Practical Faster Reading”), you may also check and see how well you have understood it. After you have recorded your pre-practice reading speed, you may start practising. REMEMBER: You may use any reading materials available, and you may practise anywhere (even on the MTR or ferry) you like. Now, are you ready for some tips?

Tips on improving your reading speed

• Identify a purpose for your reading and try to achieve that purpose in your reading. (This tip can be useful for any kind of reading.)
• Ignore the word(s) or part(s) that you do not understand.
• DON’T ever read back! This will slow you down. Just go on reading, bearing the passage title in mind.
• DON’T let your eyes stay on the same line for more than 5 seconds.
• Try to identify one main idea from one paragraph. (Of course some paragraph may contain more than one main idea, whereas in other cases, one main idea could be expressed in several paragraphs.)
• Eye movement: There are different suggestions on how to use your eye movement to help you read faster. There is no one solution. The best way is to experiment yourself before you identify the method that suits you. Different methods are as follows:

Reading For Main Point

If this is the first advice sheet you use, you may also want to look at Improving your reading Speed When you read for main points only, of course, you will increase your reading speed naturally. It would be easier to locate main points in a reading article if you know what they are. A simple way is look at the title of the article. A good title should be able to summarize the theme of the article. When you read, try to identify all the points related to the theme or the title. If the title does not tell explicitly what the content or theme is, then try to predict. This leaflet will give you some tips on helping you to locate main points, and the materials that you may use for practice. Tips on locating main points

Tips on locating main points

• Identify a purpose for your reading.
• List out several points you want to get from the article, and look for those points when you read.
• Look for any signposts in the article. They are hints to let you know whether the nearby text contains important information. When you see signposts such as “in other words”, you may automatically skip this part since it is a paraphrase of a previously-mentioned point. Other signposts such as “another important point”, “what is important is…”, etc. are signals that tell you to read on.
• It’s WRONG to assume that the first sentence of each paragraph summarizes the main idea of that paragraph.
• It’s also WRONG to assume that each paragraph should contain one main idea. Some paragraphs may contain more than one main point. And in other cases, one main point is expressed in several paragraphs

English Learning

To read critically is to make judgements about how a text is argued. This is a highly reflective skill requiring you to “stand back” and gain some distance from the text you are reading. (You might have to read a text through once to get a basic grasp of content before you launch into an intensive critical reading.) THE KEY IS THIS:

* don’t read looking only or primarily for information
* do read looking for ways of thinking about the subject matter

When you are reading, highlighting, or taking notes, avoid extracting and compiling lists of evidence, lists of facts and examples. Avoid approaching a text by asking “What information can I get out of it?” Rather ask “How does this text work? How is it argued? How is the evidence (the facts, examples, etc.) used and interpreted? How does the text reach its conclusions?
How Do I Read Looking for Ways of Thinking?

1. First determine the central claims or purpose of the text (its thesis). A critical reading attempts to assess how these central claims are developed or argued.
2. Begin to make some judgements about context . What audience is the text written for? Who is it in dialogue with? (This will probably be other scholars or authors with differing viewpoints.) In what historical context is it written? All these matters of context can contribute to your assessment of what is going on in a text.
3. Distinguish the kinds of reasoning the text employs. What concepts are defined and used? Does the text appeal to a theory or theories? Is any specific methodology laid out? If there is an appeal to a particular concept, theory, or method, how is that concept, theory, or method then used to organize and interpret the data? You might also examine how the text is organized: how has the author analyzed (broken down) the material? Be aware that different disciplines (i.e. history, sociology, philosophy, biology) will have different ways of arguing.
4. Examine the evidence (the supporting facts, examples, etc) the text employs. Supporting evidence is indispensable to an argument. Having worked through Steps 1-3, you are now in a position to grasp how the evidence is used to develop the argument and its controlling claims and concepts. Steps 1-3 allow you to see evidence in its context. Consider the kinds of evidence that are used. What counts as evidence in this argument? Is the evidence statistical? literary? historical? etc. From what sources is the evidence taken? Are these sources primary or secondary?
5. Critical reading may involve evaluation. Your reading of a text is already critical if it accounts for and makes a series of judgments about how a text is argued. However, some essays may also require you to assess the strengths and weaknesses of an argument. If the argument is strong, why? Could it be better or differently supported? Are there gaps, leaps, or inconsistencies in the argument? Is the method of analysis problematic? Could the evidence be interpreted differently? Are the conclusions warranted by the evidence presented? What are the unargued assumptions? Are they problematic? What might an opposing argument be?

Some Practical Tips

1. Critical reading occurs after some preliminary processes of reading. Begin by skimming research materials, especially introductions and conclusions, in order to strategically choose where to focus your critical efforts.
2. When highlighting a text or taking notes from it, teach yourself to highlight argument: those places in a text where an author explains her analytical moves, the concepts she uses, how she uses them, how she arrives at conclusions. Don’t let yourself foreground and isolate facts and examples, no matter how interesting they may be. First, look for the large patterns that give purpose, order, and meaning to those examples. The opening sentences of paragraphs can be important to this task.
3. When you begin to think about how you might use a portion of a text in the argument you are forging in your own paper, try to remain aware of how this portion fits into the whole argument from which it is taken. Paying attention to context is a fundamental critical move.
4. When you quote directly from a source, use the quotation critically. This means that you should not substitute the quotation for your own articulation of a point. Rather, introduce the quotation by laying out the judgments you are making about it, and the reasons why you are using it. Often a quotation is followed by some further analysis.
5. Critical reading skills are also critical listening skills. In your lectures, listen not only for information but also for ways of thinking. Your instructor will often explicate and model ways of thinking appropriate to a discipline.